Free Custom «Research Proposal: School Violence» Essay Paper

Introduction

Topic Area

Violent incidents in school settings result in traumatic impacts for students. During the 2008-2009 period, 38 deaths were documented in schools in the US (Robers, Zhang, Truman, National Center for Education Statistics, and US Department of Justice, 2010). Studies consistently suggest that adolescents who experienced serious violent acts in schools have higher risk of developing mental health problems both behaviorally and cognitively (Brener, Simon, Anderson, Barrios, & Small, 2002; Dogan-Ates, 2010). Moreover, it has been observed that, since students are in development behavioral and cognitive phases of their biological life cycle, the acts of violence have a profound effect on the progress of their mental health (Schoen, Burgoyne, & Schoen, 2004). Due to significant physical and health effects related to serious school violence, there is the need for developing effective interventions that target students who have experienced such violent acts (Gillies, Taylor, Gray, O'Brien, & D'Abrew, 2013). Although short-term mental health recovery is prioritized following violent incidents in school settings, little attention has been paid to the need for long-term recovery. As a result, there is limited research focusing on the long-term mental health trauma for students who have experienced serious violence in school settings. Schools can be more efficient in helping students with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as a result of experiencing serious violent acts in schools. The research on when and how students can cope and overcome PTSD symptoms will offer measures that schools can adopt to enhance better mental health following school violence. To this end, the proposed research seeks to explore cognitive and behavioral impacts of school violence on students in depth. Also, the study seeks to determine the effectiveness of a long-term intervention (trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy – TF-CBT) in reducing PTSD symptoms in the long term.

 

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Significance to Knowledge

As it was mentioned earlier, there is little research focusing on the long-term mental recovery of students following exposure to serious violence in school settings. Bulk of the research has focused on short-term mental recovery. As a result, this study will make significant contributions regarding interventions that can help students to recover from PTSD in the long term following exposure to school violence. Essentially, the proposed study highlights the importance of not only focusing on short-term mental recovery but also on long-term mental recovery of students following a violent incident in school settings, which is an area that has not received considerable attention.

Literature Review

Previous Research

Violence in school settings can take diverse forms such as bullying, carrying weapons, threats, homicide, and spree shootings (Turunen, Haravuori, Punamäki, Suomalainen, & Marttunen, 2014). Because of the recent increase in high-profile shootings in school environments, the US government is emphasizing the importance of ensuring that schools are safe and free of violence in numerous legislations such as No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 and the adoption of the Safe Schools Initiative (Silverman, et al., 2008). Nevertheless, the prevalence of violence in schools is still high, and there is little knowledge regarding long-term impacts associated with such incidents.

Experiencing violence in school settings has been established profound impacts on adolescents. Vast research has examined the impacts of school violence on the behavioral and mental health of students who witness or are victims of such violence. Exposure to school violence results in a myriad of behavioral and emotional issues such as aggressive and self-destructive behavior, dissociation, depression, anger, anxiety, and PTSD for both victims and witnesses of school violence (Math, Nirmala, Moirangthem, & Kumar, 2015; Trickey, Siddaway, Meiser-Stedman, Serpell, & Field, 2012). Students who are frequently victimized from school violence show higher levels of loneliness, anxiety, and depression than non-victimized students (Elklit & Kurdahl, 2012). Experiencing school violence has been linked to severe psychological harm done towards students (La Greca & Silverman, 2009). Additionally, some studies have reported that school violence can result in students’ refusal to go to schools, academic problems, and diminishing the ability of students to learn within school settings (Elklit & Kurdahl, 2012). Thus, it is evident from the literature that school violence has far-reaching psychological and behavioral impacts.

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Interlocking Findings and Unanswered Questions

Short-term interventions following a crisis reduce PTSD among adolescents and children, although one third of them still show the signs of PTSD three months or more after the traumatic event (La Greca & Silverman, 2009). Studies also indicate that signs of mental health problems are still present within months and even years following the traumatic event, and it can lead to PTSD among high school students (Brener, et al., 2002). Moreover, using a healthy coping method in the course of the healing process can lower the risk factors associated with PTSD months after the exposure to the violent event (Elklit & Kurdahl, 2012). However, the timeframe for implementing such interventions remains unclear due to scanty research. Therefore, this research intends to contribute to the knowledge regarding the timeframe for implementing a crisis recovery intervention that is most beneficial for high school students who have experienced violence within school settings.

Gaps in Knowledge

Experiencing violence in school settings results in considerable mental health and behavioral impacts for students in the short and long run as for both victims and witnesses (Dogan-Ates, 2010). School violence increases the likelihood of long-term consequences since students are still in the developmental stage of their cognitive and mental health (Schoen, Burgoyne, & Schoen, 2004). When designing crisis intervention programs, it is crucial to consider the possible long-term mental health effects associated with experiencing school violence. In the literature, there is no established timeframe for the implementation of such initiatives. The proposed study seeks to address this gap in knowledge.

Goal

Research Questions

The following are the research questions for the proposed study:

Qualitative:

1. What are the cognitive and behavioral impacts of school violence on students?
2. What are the traumatic experiences associated with experiencing acts of violence within school settings?

Quantitative:

1. Is the trauma-focused cognitive behavioral therapy effective in reducing PTSD after six months?

Hypotheses

H₁: The TF-CBT is more effective in reducing PTSD symptoms six months after the event than the traditional intervention time of 2-4 weeks.

H₀: The TF-CBT will not result in significantly lower PTSD symptoms after six months when compared to the traditional intervention time of 2-4 weeks.

Methodology

Approach and Design

The proposed study will make use of mixed methods research. The qualitative approach will be used in obtained in-depth understanding of the behavioral and cognitive impacts that violence in school settings have on students. The specific qualitative design that will be employed in the proposed research is phenomenology, which will be used in uncovering students associated with traumatic experiences based on avoidance and intrusion as outlined in the DSM-5. The phenomenology design is a selection for the planned study because of its capacity in explaining the experiences of students who exhibit PTSD because of school violence in a comprehensive manner (Creswell, 2011).

The quantitative approach will be utilized in ascertaining the effectiveness of the TF-CBT in reducing PTSD symptoms four months after experiencing the incident of school violence. The specific quantitative design will be using the quasi-experiment (Cozby, 2012), which is effective in highlighting the issue of PTSD among students through a comparison of two groups of participants. This will be beneficial in increasing the internal validity of research findings. The independent variable will be the TF-CBT intervention, whereas the dependent variable will be PTSD symptoms four months after the violent incident. The rationale for dividing students into two groups is to evaluate the effectiveness of the TF-CBT. The treatment group will receive the TF-CBT, which is an evidence-based intervention model for adolescents who have experienced traumatic events. Students in the control group will receive TF-CBT for a period of six months after event, whereas students in the control group will receive the traditional intervention time of 2-4 weeks. The variables such as level of trauma exposure, socioeconomic status, and gender will be controlled. Pretests and posttests will also be conducted for both control and treatment groups in order to assess the level of change associated with the intervention.

Sampling

Qualitative Sampling. The population for the proposed research comprises of high school US students who have experienced serious school violence. For the qualitative component of the proposed research, the participants will be selected using purposive and convenience sampling. Purposive sampling is a form of non-probability sampling, where the researcher focuses on selecting participants having the desired attributes needed to answer the research questions (Ness, 2010). In this respect, the criteria for the purposive sampling in the proposed research include students from one academic institution having a shared traumatic experience within their schools. Furthermore, the sample will be limited to 12^th grade students within the selected school. After the identification of students who have experienced violence within their school, the researcher will make use of convenience sampling in recruiting the participants. This sampling approach entails selecting participants who can be accessed easily (Fisher, 2007).

The sample for the proposed research will be drawn from a selected public school in the New York State (NYS) and Mid-Hudson Valley region which includes Westchester, Ulster, Sullivan, Rockland, Putnam, Orange, and Dutchess counties. In selecting participants, the first step will entail prescreening the schools in the region using news media reports published in local newspapers and calls to schools asking if they have experienced any serious violent incidents resulting in injury or death. If a school affirms the recent occurrence of violence, then a request will be made to the school district’s administrative offices for the emergency management plans open for inspection by the public as required by the §155.17 of the NYS Department of Education law. If no school responds, then all the 129 high schools found in the Mid-Hudson region will be contacted to determine if there has been any implementation of the emergency management plans during the last three months. From the records documented by the recovery response team who interceded on the behalf of the school, a request to participate in this research will be sent to students, especially those in the 12^th grade, and their guardians.

The sample size of the qualitative research is 25 students. When conducting qualitative phenomenological studies, the general recommendation regarding the sample size is 3-10 in order to ensure data saturation (Daymon & Holloway, 2010). The latter represents a point whereby no new themes are likely to emerge. The researcher is convinced that the sample size of 25 will guarantee the saturation of data; nevertheless, if data saturation is not achieved after exhausting all 25 participants, the researcher intends to continue gathering data from additional participants.

Quantitative Sampling. The sampling frame for the proposed study is a high school in the NYS Mid-Hudson Valley region. Specifically, the sample will be drawn from emergency management post-response records of the school indicating students who have experienced school violence (Creswell, 2011). The type of sampling that will be adopted for the quantitative research is probability sampling, which refers to a sampling approach typified by each unit in the population having the same chance of being selected. A probability sample enables the researcher to identify the sampling error and the level of confidence with which the findings can be reported. The rationale for choosing a probability sample for the quantitative research is because it facilitates the generalizations of the study findings from the sample to the wider population being studied (Fisher, 2007). The specific probability sampling that will be adopted in the proposed research is stratified random sampling, which will entail selecting the 12^th grade cohort from the entire high school population. This will be followed by stratifying the sample based on gender, level of trauma exposure, and socioeconomic status. Using stratified sampling is crucial in lessening the sampling error probability (Cozby, 2012). In addition, this sampling approach helps in ensuring that subgroups found within the study population are represented in the research sample. Also, stratified sampling has a higher statistical precision when compared to that of simple random sampling (Fisher, 2007).

The size of the sample for the proposed research was determined using a web-based sample size calculator (www.statpapages.org). This site calculator yields the needed sample size using the desired statistical power. At the desired statistical power of 80%, an estimated effect size of 0.2 on two independent samples, and a significance level of 0.05, the minimum sample required to achieve this statistical power and exert a modest impact of intervention is 34. As a result, this research will utilize 150 participants, which is more than the minimum needed threshold in order to enhance the confidence for reporting the study findings.

Data Collection

Qualitative Data Collection. For qualitative research, the data will be collected using interviews with participants. Interviews provided the researcher with an opportunity to follow up and clarify any important issues that might emerge from during the discussion sessions (Creswell, 2011). Semi-structured interviews are deemed suitable for qualitative studies that are geared towards obtaining an in-depth understanding of the concept under study (Cozby, 2012). Semi-structured interviews will be administered in the school or any other venue that the participant deems convenient. In addition, an informed consent will be sent to the parents of the students who will be invited to take part in the study. An incentive that will be utilized to encourage participation in qualitative research is the promise of sharing the findings of the study. The interviews will entail the use of open-ended questions that captured concepts associated with cognitive and behavioral inquiries and encourage participants to tell their stories. The lack of social support has been found to contribute to PTSD symptoms. Another contributing factor associated with PTSD is avoidance behavior (Math, et al., 2015). The use of qualitative interviews will be helpful to ascertain whether these behaviors are present among the participants. An example of a behavioral question associated with avoidance behavior that would be offered to the participants is “Tell me about the things that you might be avoiding since the violent event at school that you did not avoid before it happened.” The interview sessions will be recorded and transcribed in order to facilitate later analysis.

Quantitative Data Collection. The data for quantitative research will be gathered using questionnaires administered to selected participants by qualified clinicians. As an incentive to encourage participants, $10 will be donated for every student who participates in the research as a means of honoring those who died as a result of violent acts in school settings. The instruments that will be utilized for the collection of data include the CAPS-CA-5 (Clinician-Administered PTSD Scale for DSM-5-Child/Adolescent; U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, 2016a) scale and the Traumatic Events Screening Inventory for Children (TESI-C; U.S. Department of Veterans Affairs, 2016b). These instruments are evidence-based measurement tools. The CAPS-CA-5 is used in ascertaining the onset and the duration of symptoms and development impairment. This will be helpful in determining whether there is a timeframe after the incident as for the onset of mental trauma (from mental shock to disillusionment). The TESI-C screening is used in measuring the level of trauma experience associated with the event. The level of trauma exposure will be controlled. Other factors that will be controlled include socioeconomic status and gender, which will be measured using a demographic survey. The authorization to utilize these tools has also been applied for. The evidence-based questionnaires used for this study will be compared to any assessment tools used by the recovery response team immediately after the crisis. Comparison of scores between immediate symptomatic risk factors and this study conducted four months later will be documented, which means that pretest and posttest measures for control and the treatment group will be recorded as well.

Data Analysis Plan

Qualitative Data Analysis. The analysis of qualitative data will be performed using a computer software program – Nvivo. This will facilitate the coding and categorization of the data obtained from the interviews. Pre-set codes made prior to the study based on the literature review will form the foundation of the data analysis. Additionally, unexpected themes from the data will also be documented. Moreover, patterns between and within the categories will be noted. NVivo will outline the themes and patterns for analysis. Also, direct quotes from participants will be incorporated when analyzing the results in order to help emphasize the themes that have been uncovered during interviews. Moreover, the procedures taken to analyze the data will be recorded to help with the verification of the findings as well as with potential implications.

Quantitative Data Analysis. Quantitative data obtained from participants will be analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS). In this research, the dependent variable is PTSD symptoms, while the independent variable being manipulated is the presence or absence of TF-CBT treatment. The analysis of data will be done using descriptive and inferential statistics. The description of the study variables will be realized using the descriptive statistics. Inferential statistics will be used to analyze the relationship between the dependent and independent variables. Specifically, the independent samples t-test will be used to determine whether significant differences exist in PTSD symptoms between the two groups before and after the treatment. Before the study, it is expected that the participants in both groups will have the same baseline characteristics as well as the level of PTSD symptoms. After the intervention, when a significant difference appears between two groups, it will be concluded that the TF-CBT is more effective than the traditional crisis intervention implemented after two months. In addition, multiple regressions will be performed to determine the predictors of PTSD symptoms after a serious violent incident in school settings. In the multiple regression, the level of PTSD symptoms as measured by CAPS-CA-5 and TESI-C will be the dependent variables, while the predictors will comprise of presence or absence of TF-CBT (a dummy value of 1 for the TF-CBT presence and of 0 for TF-CBT absence), gender, socioeconomic status, and the level of trauma exposure. The last three variables will be considered as confounding variables.